Emission factors and evolution of SO ₂ measured from biomass burning in wildfires and agricultural fires

Fires emit sufficient sulfur to affect local and regional air quality and climate. This study analyzes SOinline-formula₂ emission factors and variability in smoke plumes from US wildfires and agricultural fires, as well as their relationship to sulfate and hydroxymethanesulfonate (HMS) formation. Observed SOinline-formula₂ emission factors for various fuel types show good agreement with the latest reviews of biomass burning emission factors, producing an emission factor range of 0.47–1.2 g SOinline-formula₂ kginline-formula⁻¹ C. These emission factors vary with geographic location in a way that suggests that deposition of coal burning emissions and application of sulfur-containing fertilizers likely play a role in the larger observed values, which are primarily associated with agricultural burning. A 0-D box model generally reproduces the observed trends of SOinline-formula₂ and total sulfate (inorganic inline-formula+ organic) in aging wildfire plumes. In many cases, modeled HMS is consistent with the observed organosulfur concentrations. However, a comparison of observed organosulfur and modeled HMS suggests that multiple organosulfur compounds are likely responsible for the observations but that the chemistry of these compounds yields similar production and loss rates as that of HMS, resulting in good agreement with the modeled results. We provide suggestions for constraining the organosulfur compounds observed during these flights, and we show that the chemistry of HMS can allow organosulfur to act as an S(IV) reservoir under conditions of pH inline-formula> 6 and liquid water content inline-formula>10⁻⁷ g sminline-formula⁻³. This can facilitate long-range transport of sulfur emissions, resulting in increased SOinline-formula₂ and eventually sulfate in transported smoke.